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**Social Cognition/Social Learning Theory** http://www.holah.karoo.net/bobo2.JPG

//"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action."// **- Albert Bandura** on Social Learning Theory

Website Organization Social Cognition/Social Learning Theorytoc

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 * Website Organization
 * Overview
 * What is this theory trying to explain
 * Social learning
 * Basic Concepts
 * Social Cognitive Theory
 * Basic Concepts
 * How has the theory changed over time
 * Case Studies
 * Study 1 Exploring the Limits of Social Cognitive Theory: Why Negatively Reinforced Behaviors on TV May be Modeled Anyway - Kelly Howe
 * Study 2 Testing a Theoretical Model Based on Social Cognitive Theory for Media Influences on Suicidal Ideation: Results from a Panel Study - Stephanie Bovee
 * Study 3 Access Attitudes: A Social Learning Approach to Examining Community Engagement and Support for Press Access to Government Records - Camille Neeley
 * Study 4 Virtual Self-Modeling: The Effects of Vicarious Reinforcement and Identification on Exercise Behaviors - Gabriella Jaya
 * Study 5 The Intergenerational Transmission of Relationship Violence - Rachael Macario
 * Study analysis
 * How our group feels about the development of this theory. Our assessment of the current state of the theory, as well as our thoughts on new directions for development of the theory.

Overview

**What is this theory trying to explain?**
Originally known as social learning theory, social cognition theory explains how people learn through observation. It was developed in order to provide a detailed explanation of the interaction between the individual and the environment which takes place in learning through observation.

**Social Learning Theory**
Albert Bandura's social learning theory has been very influential in the field of learning and development. He developed these theories from pre-existing learning theories in an attempt to explain learning through mimicry, imitation, and other observational processes. The famous Bobo Doll Experiment was used by Albert Bandura as an example of social learning of aggressive behaviors. The image below illustrates how a behavior such as aggression is learned through the social learning theory lens. http://www.xmind.net/share/_embed/keiron/social-learning-theory-and-aggression/

//Basic Concepts//
The main elements of the social learning theory are
 * 1) People learn by observation
 * 2) Mental state impacts learning
 * 3) Learning does not always result in an observable behavior.

Bandura felt that the process of modeling consisted of **attention**, **retention**, **reproduction**, and **motivation.

This process is illustrated above in the Social Learning Theory and Aggression image. Attention means that for the modeling process to take place it must first be initiated by initial attention. What is learned then must be remembered. What is learned then must be reproduced. Finally, motivation has to be present for any of the previous steps to take place. An example of this is old media which demonstrates behaviors now considered taboo, hopefully wistfully such as gross racism or sexism. No motivation will be present to begin or reinforce the process of modeling a taboo behavior.

**Social Cognitive Theory**
The social cognitive theory is a refinement of the social learning theory. Bandura developed it out of his social learning theory, and gave it the name of social cognitive theory to reflect the emphasis on internal mental variables. The theory can be used to explain the impact of mass media on society, and places the social diffusion of behavior through media venues in a conceptual framework. The social cognitive model assigns agency, or causality, to both the symbolic communication of mass media and to the internal cognitive processes of individuals. This model broke further away from previous models of behavioralism and operant, or instrumental conditioning. Those models tended to place causality in a unidirectional frame. In other words, they conceptualized human behavior as being a dependent variable of the environment. Bandura disagreed with the idea of human behavior as being totally controlled by the environment. He believed, and his theories reflect this belief, that humans have the capacity for self-directed agency, or guide their own behavior.

The images below of operant or social conditioning shows the unidirectional flow of causation in operant conditioning.

The social cognitive theory, in contrast to instrumental conditioning or behaviorism, places the social diffusion of behavior in a conceptual framework. Agency, or causation, is assigned to the cognitive processes of the individual, or personal determinants, as well. The arrows on the image below indicate the flow of causation. //Basic Concepts// The main elements of the social cognition theory build off of the social learning theory. The three elements of the social cognitive theory's mechanism of triadic reciprocal causation are
 * personal determinants
 * behavioral determinants
 * environmental determinan

The social cognitive theory then divides the category of personal determinants into the categories of
 * biological
 * affective
 * cognitive

‍‍‍People learn most behaviors through the process of participation and reinforcement, along with observation and modeling. Bandura stated in 1989 that the further development in the social learning theory determines that learning will most likely occur if there is a close identification between the observer and the model. This also determined if the observer has a good deal of self-efficacy. Self efficacy functions as an important set of proximal determinants of human motivation, affect, and action; operating an action through motivational cognitive and affective intervening process .‍‍‍

Several other interesting concepts developed in social cognition theory are
 * reciprocal determinism- Personality is shaped through reciprocal determinism. Reciprocal Determinism considers how what we do, who we spend time with (behavior) impacts changes in our environment we experience and the cognitive and emotional response to the environmental feedback we receive. Therefore, based on beliefs we have, we act a certain way and chose to act in certain social environments.
 * self-efficacy- “the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations" In other words, a person’s belief concerning their ability to perform the behaviors needed to achieve the desired outcome. Someone who has high self-efficacy in certain context contains the confidence in their ability to overcome obstacles and therefore achieve their goals.

A useful aspect of this theory is that the conceptual frame can be used to analyze the impact of media on human behavior. Messages obtained through the media are considered a symbolic communication. Symbolic communication is one of three pathways of observational learning described by Bandura. media type="youtube" key="tAFDux0UL9c" height="349" width="425" align="center"
 * symbolic model i.e. media
 * verbal model
 * live model

A video clip that portray social learning in real life. How has the theory changed over time? The social learning theory differed from its predecessors by including mental processes in the shaping of behavior. Previous conceptions had assigned no agency to human cognition. The social cognitive theory expanded on this concept by defining terms in the area of cognition. The trend over time in this branch of theorization has been a move away from theories such as behaviorism and operant conditioning that do not address the influence of human cognition as an agent of learning and towards the social cognition theory model of learning. The inclusion of cognitive variables in the social cognitive theory has made it useful in conducting media research. The research article summaries included below show how researchers have applied this conceptual vision in the scientific community, and how the theory has developed and held up over time.

**Trends in Learning Theory**
 * = **Operant Conditioning** ||= **Social Learning Theory** ||= **Social Cognitive Theory** ||
 * = * behavior
 * reinforcement
 * punishment
 * change in rate of ||= Modeling Process
 * Attention
 * Retention
 * Reproduction
 * Motivation ||= * personal determinants
 * biological
 * affective
 * cognitive
 * behavioral determinants
 * environmental determinants ||

Case Studies

**Study 1 * **
**Exploring the Limits of Social Cognitive Theory: Why Negatively Reinforced Behaviors on TV May Be Modeled Anyway ** Kelly Howe

**The purpose** of this study was to test behavioral modeling predictions. Using the basic concepts of the Social Cognition Theory (SCT:Bandura, 1986, 2002b), this study tested the notion that unfavorable sexual actions portrayed through media figures and popular TV characters may promote risky behaviors for the audience, therefore manipulating their judgment of the actions. Furthermore, the study also tested the outcome of influence on the viewers if the negative actions in media were given negative punishment whether or not the viewer would be less likely to take part in the behavior. In order to gauge if the risky sexual behaviors on television that are given positive or negative reinforcement will influence the viewer’s personal expectations of sexual behavior, the study pulls from the Social Cognition and schema theory (407). **This research tests** the idea of Social Cognition Theory “in that we manipulate the depictions of early sexual timing to reflect positive versus negative reinforcement to determine their relative influence on viewer’s perceptions of the appropriateness of engaging in promiscuous sexual behaviors”(415). In accordance with the SCT, theoretically speaking by increasing negative consequences linked to unsatisfactory behavior may have a positive effect on the audience’s future behavior. They tested 3 hypotheses to gauge if Social Cognition Theory is appropriately applied in this situation.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">**A description of the case studies, who was involved and the procedure**: In the first study, 60 undergraduate students from the University of California, Santa Barbara participated in a survey in which they answered questions in regards to the most recent hit TV series that had just finished it’s finale. They were to indicate on a scale of 1(least likely) to 7(extremely likely) the likeliness that the main characters were to experience consequences for their poor lack of positive actions. Furthermore, the participants were asked open-ended questions based on “cliff-hangers of several popular American TV evening programs like those consisting of Desperate Housewives, Grey’s Anatomy, etc. (412). The goal of this first study was to decipher perceived positive and negative outcomes of specific inappropriate actions.
 * (H1): That TV viewers believe main characters in fictional TV series will experience positive outcomes, despite the adversity they face (411).
 * (H2): After exposure to fictional portrayals of one-night stands, women who have previously had one-night stands will exhibit no change in their expected future likelihood of engaging in such behavior, whereas women who have not previously had a one-night stand will exhibit an increase in their expected future likelihood of engaging in such behavior (413).
 * (H3): After exposure to a positive (vs. negative) outcome portrayal of a one-night stand, women who have not previously had a one-night stand will report a greater likelihood of engaging in a one-night stand in the future (413).

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Study 2 focused on testing the Social Cognitive Theory versus the schema theory. To do so, study hypothesis 2 and 3 utilized four hundred undergraduate women again at UCSB but this time in exchange for communication course credit. In this study, they used three manipulations from the hit HBO series Sex and the City. The first two manipulations exhibited intrinsic punishment versus reward, while the third reflected extrinsic punishment and reward in a separate story line (414). These consequences included extreme regret, indications of lesson learned, and positive social outcomes. They had the participants watch these episodes, and were then asked to explain their emotional reaction to it. They also asked the women a series of questions regarding their dating, sex, and personal lives.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">**The results generated through this case study 1** showed they were able to determine that most viewers believe the main characters are unlikely to suffer long-term as a result of poor actions. Through this research it is fair to accept that while individuals develop serial programming schemas, the perceived negative connotation of the event is only seen as a minimal setback that can be overcome in the long run. Understand the role schema’s play sets the framework to understanding how beliefs regarding TV influence judgments of what is viewed (412). Following the analysis of Case study 2 and 3, they were able to determine that there was a main effect to the direct experience on likelihood of a future one-night stand, compared with those of no past experience. Next, they examined whether the positive or negative reinforcement associated with expected behavior modeling. The results showed that the portrayals of sexual behavior on television were likely to affect only the viewers that hadn’t had direct experience with the behavior depicted**.** This outcome is consistent with the idea of Social Cognition Theory. However, what was not consistent is that the valence of depiction should have influenced the likelihood of behavioral modeling for those whom hadn’t engaged in the depicted behavior, but witnessed through positive reinforcement of said main character.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">**Implications of the study for development of the theory and for application to real- life situations:** A problem that is faced is that when young viewers watch these “protagonists” engage in promiscuous behavior without experiencing negative consequences, it gives them the wrong impression that there are little to no costs associated with the behavior. It may cause viewers to take part in behavioral modeling when they see their favorite media figure “bounce back” after partaking in such risky engagements (408). The unrealistic portrayal of the risks of promiscuous sexual behavior has led to an idea that media should change the consequences of risky actions in order to encourage healthier sexual behavior. Social Cognition Theory would then help explain why it may create a positive influence on viewers’ actions.

<span style="color: #808080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 80%;">**Article:** Nabi, R. L., & Clark, S. (2008). Exploring the Limits of Social Cognitive Theory: Why Negatively Reinforced Behaviors on TV May Be Modeled Anyway. //Journal of Communication//, 58(3), 407-427. <span style="color: #808080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 80%;"> Retrieved Jun 15, 2011 from EBSCO//host//. **Link: [|Exploring the Limits of Social Cognitive Theory: Why Negatively Reinforced Behaviors on TV May Be Modeled Anyway] **

Study 2 *
**<span style="font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">Testing a Theoretical Model Based on Social Cognitive Theory for Media Influences on Suicidal Ideation: Results from a Panel Study ** <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 80%;">Stephanie Bovee

The study reviewed in “Testing a Theoretical Model Based on Social Cognitive Theory for Media Influences on Suicidal Ideation: Results from a Panel Study” uses the social cognitive theory as a conceptual framework to see if there is a relationship between suicidal ideation and media influence (Fu, Chan, & Yip 26). It also explores the validity of social cognitive theory as a theoretical framework. Both the conceptual framework and the relationship between suicidal ideation and media influence are the subjects of the study. **Theoretical background:** One of the questions addressed in the study is whether the social cognitive theory is valid as construed. Elements of observational learning in the social cognitive theory that the study analyzes include motivation, production, retention, and attention (29). The relationships between these variables are assessed. The study tests multiple hypotheses (31).
 * Hypothesis 1 is whether operationalization using the social cognitive theory is valid (31).
 * Hypothesis 2 is whether the specific relationships between the variables of demotivation, motivation, production, retention, and attention in the social cognitive theory are valid (31).
 * Hypothesis 3 is whether the relationship between suicidal ideation and production is direct when factors such as prior suicidal ideation are controlled for (32).
 * Hypothesis 4 is if there is a reciprocal relation between demotivation, motivation, production, retention, and exposure and prior suicidal ideation (32).
 * Hypothesis 5 is if the relationships vary based on age group and if people between the ages of 25 and 44 have less susceptibility to media influence (32).
 * Hypothesis 6 is whether differences in prior suicidal tendencies have different interactive relationships between variables and if suicidalism increases susceptibility to media influence (32).

**A description of who or what was studied and how the study was conducted:** The study was done in Hong Kong (32). Households drawn from “the Census and Statistics Department” of Hong Kong China were randomly chosen (32). The “last-birthday method” was used to contact a person between 20 and 59 years old in each household.The questionnaire wording was evaluated in a pilot study before the survey to improve wording (32). 2,016 people were successfully contacted (32). Using standard definition RR1, this resulted in a response rate of 47% (32). Under the same definition there was a cooperation rate of 69% with a gender and age distribution in the sample which was analogous to the general Hong Kong population (32-33). A year later the follow up contact netted 997 successful interviews (33). Possible non-response bias was addressed by comparing the baseline of suicidal ideation between the responsive and nonresponsive participants and finding that there was no significant difference (33).The measures in the study included media exposure, media influence, suicidal ideation, and demographic information (33-34). People were asked about their media exposure to suicide, and to report how often they came across suicide stories in media (33). They answered 10 questions about their media influence based on the five domains of attention, retention, production, motivation, and demotivation (33-34). They were also asked to report suicidal ideation and demographic information (34). The data was then assessed using statistical analysis (34-35). **A summary of the results of the research:**The authors found that Hypothesis 1 was most valid using a group-factor model as opposed to a one-factor or second-order model (37). They shifted their model accordingly. Hypothesis 2 was found to be a good fit when the group factor model was used, but not in the one-factor or second-order models (37). Hypothesis 3 was supported by the data. Hypothesis 4 was partly supported using the group factor model (39-40). Hypothesis 5 tested as invalid (40-41). Hypothesis 6 was supported by the evidence (42). **Implications of the study for development of the theory and for application to real-life situations:** The study validates a conceptual model of the social cognitive theory with empirical data (42). Data indicates both the validity of the model and that there is a relationship between media portrayals of suicide and suicidal ideation (42). Whether such media is motivational or demotivational is related to attention (43).The study shows that the variables of attention and retention can be collapsed together, as can motivation and production (43). The study indicates that the social cognitive theory is valid, and that media exposure does impact individuals in a manner similar to the version of the theory developed in this study. In application to real-life situations, I feel it best to warn you that the study indicates that reading this summary may make you more inclined to kill yourself due to the multi-variable process of social cognitive learning wherein you are absorbing and assessing this message, particularly if you are already so inclined. I apologize. The study also indicates that negative media coverage of suicide does not facilitate the development of suicidal tendencies (27). Suicide is not a good choice.The attention that you pay to this article is influenced by prior existing variables such as previous suicidal thoughts you may have had. Such experiences can work to prime people, or make them more likely to pay attention to this article because of their familiarity with the topic. A cognitive feedback loop whereby the attention and motivation of suicidal ideation develops in an upward spiral can take place (43). The researchers suggest that more research needs to be done on the long-term effect of media suicide stories on suicidal tendencies in individuals (43). <span style="color: #808080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 80%;">**Article:** Fu, K., Chan, Y., & Yip, P. F. (2009). Testing a Theoretical Model Based on Social Cognitive Theory for Media Influences on Suicidal Ideation: Results from a Panel Study. //Media Psychology//, 12(1), 26-49. Retrieved Jun 15, 2011 from EBSCO//host.// **Image:** Fu, K., Chan, Y., & Yip, P. F. (2009). Testing a Theoretical Model Based on Social Cognitive Theory for Media Influences on Suicidal Ideation: Results from a Panel Study. //Media Psychology//, 12(1), 31 and 38. Retrieved Jun 15, 2011 from EBSCO//host.// **Link:** **[|Detailed Record Testing a Theoretical Model Based on Social Cognitive Theory for Media Influences on Suicidal Ideation: Results from a Panel Study]**

Study 3 *
<span style="font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">ACCESS ATTITUDES: A SOCIAL LEARNING APPROACH TO EXAMINING COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT AND SUPPORT FOR PRESS ACCESS TO GOVERNMENT RECORDS <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 80%;">Camille Neeley

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">** PURPOSE ** <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">“This survey-based study examines public attitudes toward press access to government records, deriving a political model predicting support for freedom of information based on social learning theory and testing whether support for press access is best explained by societal power, media importance, or political attitudes. Findings indicate that support is tied most closely to political attitudes such that the strongest predictors are community engagement and support for press rights, regardless of age, income, education, newspaper reading, or other variables. The results offer insights to help journalists, scholars, and citizens understand--and perhaps influence--public attitudes toward freedom of information.” [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">** BACKGROUND ** <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">The survey was conducted due to increased government secrecy though court decisions on keeping more items and data away from the public to access. Due to this lack of access Journalist are finding it difficult to find the facts for a story so the public knows the truth.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">**A DESCRIPTION OF WHO OR WHAT WAS STUDIED AND HOW THE STUDY WAS CONDUCTED** <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">It is said in the article that little research has been conducted to examine how people think about access to public records andwhat factors are related to support and nonsupport. A few studies have identified basic demographic correlates of support for access.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Below are the surveys recorded in order to find a correlation.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Hypothesis #1- The first set of predictors, socio-economic variables, accounted for <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">4.7% of variance, //R^ =// .047, F(6, 350) = 2.85, //p <// .01, and none of the individual variables individually predicted support for access. HI, regardingthe socio-economic model, was not supported.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Hypothesis #2- The second set of variables, representing media importance, <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">accounted for less variance, only 2.8%, //R' =// .023, f (3, 347) = 2.83, //p <// .05. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Internet use contributed most to the second model, //(b// = .12), i(355) = 2.21,//p <// .05. Because no relationships were found with newspaper and television use, H2, regarding the cultivation media-effects model, was not <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">supported.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Hypothesis #3- The third model, representing political variables, accounted for <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">the most variance, 11.7%, R^ = .117, F(5, 342) = 9.82, p < .001. **H3a** predicted that support for press rights would be related to support for pressaccess, and this was found to be true, //{b// = .32), f(355) = 5.82, //p <// .001. The next three hypotheses were not supported as no relationships werefound with political conservatism, political efficacy, or political involvement.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Hypothesis #4- The last hypothesis, regarding community engagement, was sup- <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">ported //{b =// .15), t(355) = 2.69, p < .01. Overall, the third block, representing political variables, accounted for most of the variance (11.7 %), supporting the social learning theory political model.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">** IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEORY ** <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">This study was conducted by two national random-digit dialing phone surveys of U,S, adults to identify predictors ofsupport for access, with a focus on political attitudes and guided by social learning theory, Social learning theory suggests that motivation is key to change, and the more relevant the subject, the stronger the person's attitudes toward the subject," People who are engaged in their communities and politics may see the value of access to information, including public records; people who are disengaged might care less about government documents.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">According to Bandura's social learning theory, people develop attitudes and learn through attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. Bandura suggests that people do not have to learn from direct observation, such as actually requesting a public record, but rather can learnthrough observing others' experiences, such as the press acquiring records. The more relevant the subject, the stronger the person's attitudestoward the subject." Therefore, being engaged in community or political issues might provide the attention, reproduction, and motivation to support freedom of information. One learns the importance of access to government information by being attentive to politics and active in community affairs, sees the press or others acquire public records, and thenbecomes motivated to maintain that free flow of information. A variety of political attitudes might be related to support for press access, including political efficacy, involvement, engagement, ideology, and attitudestoward press rights.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">** ANALYSIS OF THE STUDIES ** <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">This study utilized two national datasets to test three theoretical models for explaining attitudes toward press access to governmentrecords, indicating the importance of community engagement and political variables. The analyses suggest that support for access support for the press and engagement in the community rather than media use or one's position in society. Demographics are not satisfactory in explaining people's attitudes toward freedom of information.

<span style="color: #808080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 80%;">**Article**: Cuillier, D. (2008). ACCESS ATTITUDES: A SOCIAL LEARNING APPROACH TO EXAMINING COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT AND SUPPORT FOR PRESS ACCESS TO GOVERNMENT RECORDS. //Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly//, 85(3), 549-576. Retrieved Jun 15, 2011 from EBSCO//host//. **Link**: [|ACCESS ATTITUDES: A SOCIAL LEARNING APPROACH TO EXAMINING COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT AND SUPPORT FOR PRESS ACCESS TO GOVERNMENT RECORDS]

Study 4 *
<span style="font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">**Virtual Self-Modeling: The Effects of Vicarious Reinforcement and Identification on Exercise Behaviors** <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 80%;">Gabriella Jaya



<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">The purpose of this study was to show how media can be used as a **reinforcement** tool to exercise behaviors. It is in relevance to the social cognitive theory. In the study, researchers used immersive virtual technology (IVET) to influence participant’s exercise behaviors. The main concept being that behaviors are influenced by two character traits: **vicarious reinforcement** and **identification**. Research was done to see whether new technologies such as IVET would have the potential to influence certain exercise behaviors.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">The background for this study is the **social cognitive theory**, originally known as the social learning theory, which states that humans can learn behaviors from observation of other humans or models. The study uses IVET to track participant’s behaviors as well as to create a simulation similar to real-life. In this experiment, researches took photographs of participants to create participant’s virtual representation of the physical self (VRS). There are several advantages in using VRS as a model. One advantage would be participants are more likely to develop identification with the models as VRS is a representation of the participants in virtual form. Three studies were conducted for this experiment.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">“In Study 1, participants were randomly assigned to one of three treatments: vicarious reinforcement, in which a virtual representation of the physical self (VRS) gained or lost weight in accordance with participants' physical exercise; an unchanging VRS; or no virtual representation. The reinforcement group performed significantly more exercise in a voluntary phase than those in other conditions. Study 2 separated reward (weight loss) from punishment (weight gain) and also explored model identification by contrasting the effects of a VRS with a VRO (virtual representation of an other); participants exercised significantly more when they viewed the VRS, regardless of whether reward or punishment was shown. In Study 3, participants were exposed to either a VRS running on a treadmill, a VRO running, or a VRS loitering, and we examined effects 24 hours after the experiment. Follow-up surveys revealed that participants in the VRS-running condition demonstrated significantly higher levels of exercise than those in other conditions.” (Fox, J., & Bailenson, J. N, Page 1)

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">In the **first study**, results showed that the researchers hypothesized correctly as participants who saw their VRS being rewarded or punished for their activity were more encouraged to exercise more than those who saw an unchanging VRS or no VRS. Participants in this study were randomly selected from a student population of a medium-sized West Coast University. The sample consisted of 31 women and 32 men aged 19 to 20. They were placed in one of three conditions: //reinforcement//, //no change//, or //no virtual human//. (Fox, J., & Bailenson, J. N, Page 8-10)

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">In the **second study**, researchers introduced another virtual model called the VRO, which is similar to the participant in age and sex but not identical to the self. Researchers in this study hypothesized that participants would exercise more in the reward conditions (where the VRO or VRS loss weight) rather than the punishment conditions (where there VRO or VRS gain weight). Researchers also hypothesized that subjects assigned to conditions with their VRS will likely be more effected than those assigned with a VRO. Results showed that the researchers again hypothesized correctly. Participants in this study were randomly selected from a student population of a medium-sized West Coast University. The sample consisted of 21 women and 32 men aged 18 to 55. They were randomly placed in one of four conditions: //VRS-reward//, //VRS-punishment//, //VRO-reward//, or //VRO-punishment//. (Fox, J., & Bailenson, J. N, Page 10-12)

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">In the **third study**, researchers hypothesized that “seeing a VRS running, as opposed to a VRO running or VRS loitering, would increase participants’ physical activity following exposure.” (Fox, J., & Bailenson, J. N, Page 13) Results showed again that the researchers hypothesized correctly. It wasn’t seeing the VRS that made participants exercise more; it was seeing their own VRS exercising that encouraged participants to do more physical activity. Participants in this study were randomly selected from a student population of a medium-sized West Coast University. The sample consisted of 50 women and 23 men aged 18 to 33. Participants were randomly placed in one of three conditions: //VRS-running//, //VRS-loitering//, or //VRO-running//. (Fox, J., & Bailenson, J. N, Page 13-15).

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Results from the researched showed that **new technologies** such as IVET and VRS **can** be used to **encourage exercise.** However, it shows that only the virtual self model would work as opposed to the other virtual model. Results also showed that participants who viewed their virtual self (VRS) exercising were more likely to exercise. Additionally, these results indicated that “**self-model is more effective than a model matched solely on sex and age.**” (Fox, J., & Bailenson, J. N, Page 17) It also shows that as long as the virtual self is used, there are no differences between punishment and rewards. This study relates to real life because we constantly observe what others do and sometimes, observing others who are similar to us (or identical to us) can help us create good or bad habits. This study, unfortunately, does have some flaws. VRS, for example, is strictly limited to the face. Another limitation is that it did not explore the concept of //presence// due to the unrealistic nature of the setting. However, it does show that social learning does involve reinforcement and identification. Moreover, the study does show that **media** and other new technologies such as IVET “**have great potential…to help people attain their health goals**.” (Fox, J., & Bailenson, J. N, Page 21)

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"><span style="color: #808080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 80%;">**Article:** Fox, J., & Bailenson, J. N. (2009). Virtual Self-Modeling: The Effects of Vicarious Reinforcement and Identification on Exercise Behaviors. //Media Psychology//, 12(1), 1-25. Retrieved June 15, 2011, from EBSCO//host.// **Image:** Fox, J., & Bailenson, J. N. (2009). 3 Black and White Photographs, 2 Charts Black and White Photograph. //Media Psychology//, 12(1), 14. Retrieved June 15, 2011, from EBSCO//host**.**// **Link:** [|Virtual Self-Modeling: The Effects of Vicarious Reinforcement and Identification on Exercise Behaviors]

=**Study 5** *= <span style="font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">**The Intergenerational Transmission of Relationship Violence** <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 80%;">Rachael Macario

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">The purpose of this study is to explore the effects of learned domestic violence using the social learning theory. A telephone survey of over one thousand adult participants were questioned about their childhood and current experiences with violence within the home. The questions varied from violence reported between mother and father, father to mother, father and self and mother and self. The study explores the correlation of experience of abuse in childhood and their likelihood to transmit abusive behavior in their adult domestic lives.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Experimental design: In a random selection of phone numbers, researches encompassed 1,249 participants in Vancouver who were 19 years or older for a telephone questionnaire.

Measures: “Two aspects of violence in the family of origin were assessed: aggression between parents and aggression from parent to teenager. For aggression between parents, respondents were asked about both father-to-mother and mother-to-father aggression. Respondents were asked to think over their whole childhood and report whether there were ever any occasions when either parent hit or was otherwise physically aggressive toward the other. For aggression between parent and teenager, respondents were asked about both father-to-self and mother-to-self aggression. Respondents reported on whether, as a teenager, their father or mother hit or was otherwise physically aggressive toward them. Corporal punishment in adolescence has been associated with an increased risk of adult problem behaviors, including physical abuse of children and husband-to-wife violence ( [|Straus & Kantor, 1994] ). [|Straus & Kantor, 1994] ). Each of these four variables was scored as yes or no.” <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Results and Analysis: <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">"Approximately half of the sample reported never experiencing any childhood domestic violence. There was no evidence of gender-specific or role-specific patterns of transmission.For example, father-to-mother violence was not specifically predictive of men's perpetration and women's victimization in adult relationships. Nor was parent-to-self violence more predictive of victimization than perpetration. <span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: baseline;">Though all of the predictors were generally correlated with the perpetration of vicrtemization of current relationship violence, the only predictor that consistently increased the odds of experiencing current relationship violence was mother- to self violence. Mother to self violence doubled the likelihood of relationship violence perpetration and victimization. Father to mother violence was also a predictor for relationship violence victimization but not for perpetration.

<span style="color: #808080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 80%;">**Article**: Kwong, M., Bartholomew, K., Henderson, A., Trinke, S., (2003). The intergenerational transmission of relationship violence. //Journal of Family Psychology. Vol 17.// US: American Psychological Association. Retrieved June 2011 from EBSCOhost. **Link**: [].

The Influence of Peer Norms and Popularity on Smoking and Drinking Behavior Among College Fraternity Members: A ** Social ** - ** Network **** Analysis **.
Sonya Modi

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">** The purpose ** of this study was to determine the degree of influence that “popular” individuals have over their groups of peers. Due to the vast amount of studies done in college settings, the analysts of the study had a great deal of information to base their research questions on. This study used socialnetworkanalysis to examine the influence of peer norms and popularity n smoking and drinking among college fraternity members. Social learning theory (Bandura, 1977) and Social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1986) were applied as theoretical frameworks.

<span style="color: #262626; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> The authors based their study around four main ** research questions **. These questions were as follows: <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">** The research method ** included surveying 34 members of a fraternity at a college in the Southwestern region of the United States. All of these members pledged the fraternity in the fall of 2007.
 * 1) Does popularity predict smoking among a group of fraternity members?
 * 2) Does popularity predict drinking among a group of fraternity members?
 * 3) Is there a correlation between smoking and drinking behavior among a group of fraternity members?
 * 4) Is there a tendency towards homophily among a group of fraternity members in terms of drinking and smoking behaviors?

The members were each asked questions about the other 33 members. They were asked to identify the members whom they: This survey helped the analysts determine the “popular” men among the group. It was determined that in most cases the same men were identified as fulfilling all three of the attributes.
 * 1) Turn to for social support.
 * 2) Hang out with on a regular basis.
 * 3) Trust to talk about their problems.

The 34 men were then asked four questions about their smoking behaviors, and four questions about their drinking behaviors. The questions determined: <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">** The results ** showed that the men deemed “popular” by the study were influential in regard to drinking and smoking. The men’s groups of friends revolved around drinking and smoking behaviors. The men who drank 1 to 2 drinks per day tended to be friends with one another, as well as the men who drank 3 to 4 drinks per day, and so on and so fourth. In addition, with the exception of one non-smoker, all of the non-smokers hung out together. The study ultimately determined that popularity is a determining factor in smoking and drinking behavior in various social networks.
 * 1) whether they smoked cigarettes
 * 2) the number of cigarettes they smoked per day
 * 3) whether or not they intended to quit smoking
 * 4) whether they smoke more when with friends who smoke
 * 5) whether they drank alcohol
 * 6) the number of drinks they drank per day
 * 7) whether or not they thought they had an alcohol problem and whether they would like to cut down
 * 8) whether they drink more when with friends who drink

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">** In everyday life **, this study can be applied to almost all situations. The Social Learning Theory states that behaviors are modeled after certain individuals. We now know that the “popular” individuals are the ones who set these trends. We also know that the behavior of one person is learned and imitated by the members of his or her group of friends. 83% of college students drink. 28.3% of college students smoke. There is a relationship between popularity and social behaviors.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> Article: Phua, J. (2010). The Influence of Peer Norms and Popularity on Smoking and Drinking Behavior Among College Fraternity Members: A Social-Network Analysis. Conference Papers -- International Communication Association, 1. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.

<span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #001880; display: block; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; text-align: center;">Study Analysis <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">While bearing in mind the possible distortion effect of selection bias, the case studies reviewed here appear to empirically validate the social cognition theory. Science seems to be weighing in on the side of free will. The individual as agent is gaining increasing support. On a technical side, the suicide study in particular suggested through careful statistical analysis that the social cognitive theory is valid when the variables are factored as a group, rather than assigning different weights to the impact of different valuables. The theory suggested that in the modeling process both attention and retention can be collapsed together. This might suggest that the relationship between memory and how items in the environment are prioritized for recognition from the sensory input stream is closer than assumed.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">To return to free will, it seems that, paradoxically, at the same time as individual agency is confirmed, the common idea of the amount of agency which people possess is being shown to err towards an over-estimation in regards to the autonomy of identity. While the individual indeed, does play a part in shaping their destiny, the identity and inclinations of the individual are being shown, again and again, to be created and shaped by the cultural environment they exist in. Can the individual be seen as an echoing reflection of the environment they exist in? What does it mean if the cognitive structures which give the individual autonomy are an accretion of time and accident?

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Such metaphysical philosophical questions come to mind when reading of the technical analysis of involuntary persuasions. At the other end of the spectrum, if people are empowered through self-efficacy, should self-efficacy be conditioned into all? If people learn much through social interaction, can self-efficacy be taught through media? Can people be forced to be free?



<span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #001880; display: block; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; text-align: center;">Theory Development (Now and Later) <span style="color: #808080; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 32px;">**NOW** <span style="color: #000080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"> Albert Bandura originally was working on the Social Learning Theory, focusing heavily on how adults and children function, along with how social experiences are passed on and influence development. Through this research, Bandura added several key concepts including, self-efficacy, and time lapse between cause and effect, and was the first to think about the idea of vicarious learning. The Social Cognitive Theory stemmed from this research and revolves around observing others behavior from the effects of surrounding peers, society, or mass media. Mass media and the growth of technology in recent years have continued to prove this theory of social learning. The Social Cognitive Theory, which derived from <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">t h  <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">e Social Learning Theory, is constantly expanding, and developing overtime. One main contributor to the observational learning discussed in the SLT is the recent surge in social media usage. The participants’ actions and perceptions generated through certain social media sites are as easy as the click of a button. As shown through the study focusing on televisions role in the Social Cognitive Theory, the recent increase in involvement and attachment to outrageous reality characters, like those seen in Bravo's Real Housewife Series, is increasing the likelihood of modeling promiscuous behavior in everyday life.

<span style="color: #808080; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 32px;">**LATER** <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">In the future, both the Social Learning and Social Cognitive Theory will continue to develop due to the constant push in media trends. Since the Social Learning Theory is developed through the learning of behaviors in a social context, the new trend of social media presents the perfect platform. While Bandura’s original discoveries of influences on behavior still stand true, the real-time ability to view one’s opinion through social media on a global scale is revolutionizing many aspects of this theory. Today’s society has adopted many stereotypes due to the affects explained in the Social Learning Theory and it will continue to gage how media affects the opinions and behaviors of viewers. The Internet allows for an additive to this theory, in which social media allows everyone and anyone to act in media and influence any particular audience. YouTube and Twitter are both great examples of influenced contributions to shift opinion. The Social Learning and Cognitive Theories will continue to explain why current behaviors and stereotypes will persist in future generations. As the peak of social learning through social media continues to rise, the theory needs to take new direction towards researching towards social media’s role and the effects of giving everyone and anyone a voice in the global market. Society’s dependency is shaping behavior through the Social Learning Theory principles on a global scale, which will only continue to grow.

<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">* On a slightly different tangent, it seems that the implications of the social cognitive theory, in particular the finding of self-efficacy, might be expanded to other arenas. Cognitive therapy for example, has long been a form of treatment prescribed to individuals. Psychiatric drugs are as well.

<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">The question comes to my mind that perhaps recent trends in the field of psychology which give emphasis to organic mood disorders and mental states are in fact fundamentally counterproductive. If an individual who, through the social cognitive learning process, has learned to incorporate depressive tendencies, goes to a doctor who then tells them that there is something fundamentally wrong with their mind and then prescribes them drugs, has anything productive occurred? Where does oppression end and depression begin?



//**Group 1 Members:** Stephanie Bovee, Kelly Howe, Gabriella Jaya, Rachael Macario, Sonya Modi, Camille Neeley//